Biochemistry
A.Y. 2023/2024
Learning objectives
Biochemistry is a medical oriented course devoted to understand the metabolic processes supporting life. The course addresses the structure, function and turnover of biomolecules. Lectures will be focused on cellular metabolism and energy relationships, as well as on the regulation, of, and interconnections among, metabolic pathways. The topics of the course will be presented in a conceptual and methodological framework largely shared by modern human biochemistry.
Expected learning outcomes
By the end of this course, students will be able to:
- describe the metabolic processes supporting human life;
- demonstrate a mastery of core concepts and principles in human and medical biochemistry;
- demonstrate critical thinking skills, such as the ability to solve problems related to medical issues;
- integrate knowledge and explain how metabolic dysfunctions may lead to diseases.
- describe the metabolic processes supporting human life;
- demonstrate a mastery of core concepts and principles in human and medical biochemistry;
- demonstrate critical thinking skills, such as the ability to solve problems related to medical issues;
- integrate knowledge and explain how metabolic dysfunctions may lead to diseases.
Lesson period: Second semester
Assessment methods: Esame
Assessment result: voto verbalizzato in trentesimi
Single course
This course cannot be attended as a single course. Please check our list of single courses to find the ones available for enrolment.
Course syllabus and organization
Single session
Responsible
Course syllabus
CELLULAR MEMBRANES
- structure, organization, and functional properties
- roles of the specific lipid, protein and carbohydrate components
- lateral and trans-bilayer motions of lipids
- microdomains as functional compartments
TRANSPORT ACROSS MEMBRANES
- mechanisms, roles, and control of diffusion and solute transport in homeostasis
- features and types of protein-mediated transport
- pores, channels and ionophores
- passive transmembrane transporters of ions
- primary active transporters: ATPases and ATP-binding cassette transporters
- the solute carrier family: transporters of glucose, amino acids, organic and inorganic compounds
- overview of vesicular transport
BIOCHEMISTRY OF HORMONES
- chemical structure and properties of hormonal classes
- hormone biosynthesis and release
- hormonal control and cyclic hormonal systems
- hormone receptors and properties
- action mechanism of lipophilic and hydrophilic hormones
ENZYMES
- definition, structure and properties
- mechanisms and kinetics
- nomenclature
- factors affecting enzymatic activity
- enzyme cofactors
- coenzymes
- isoenzymes
- enzyme efficiency and specificity
- mechanisms of inhibition
- regulatory mechanisms of enzyme activity
- properties of allosteric enzymes
- pseudoenzymes and moonlighting enzymes
- medical relevance of enzymes
CELLULAR METABOLISM
- definition, purposes, and features
- metabolic pathways: types, interconnections and control strategies
- metabolomics and relevance in medicine
- metabolism and epigenetics
CELLULAR STRATEGIES FOR ENERGY TRANSFER AND USE
- high-energy compounds
- properties and role of ATP as energy transporter
- biological oxidations: coenzymes and role in homeostasis
- energy flux and energy transformation in cells
- ATP formation by substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation
FUNDAMENTALS OF HUMAN NUTRITION
- functional types of nutrients
- essential nutrients and their importance in human health
- nutrient energy content: evaluation and measure units
- basal metabolic rate and factors influencing it
- total energetic requirement, its components and energetic needs for physical activity
THE TRICARBOXYLIC ACID CYCLE
- substrates, products, enzymes, cofactors, sites of energy recovery, and regulation
- the amphibolic role of the TCA cycle and roles of anaplerotic reactions
- the signaling role of the TCA cycle
THE MITOCHONDIAL RESPIRATORY CHAIN
- components, organization, and properties, energy flow
- the process of mitochondrial electron transfer
- inhibitors of the mitochondrial respiratory chain and role for altered mitochondrial respiratory chain in human diseases
ATP SYNTHASE
- structure and functional components, coupling between the respiratory chain and ATP formation
- mechanism of oxidative phosphorylation
- the ATP/ADP cycle, and the concept of respiratory control
- inhibitors and uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation
- the key role of O2 in cells, and its different uses
REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES
- definition and types of reactive oxygen species, production and clearance, effects in physiological and physio-pathological conditions
- nitric oxide production, functions and toxicity
- antioxidant defenses and redox homeostasis
METABOLISM OF CARBOHYDRATES
- structural and functional features of the major carbohydrates relevant to human metabolism
- digestion and absorption of dietary carbohydrates
- major metabolic fates of glucose and their roles
- glucose phosphorylation, importance in metabolism, and medical application in PET
- the glycolytic pathway
- energy production from anaerobic and aerobic glycolysis
- regulation of glycolysis by local and hormonal control
- metabolic fates of pyruvate produced by glycolysis
- shuttle mechanisms for transfer of reducing equivalents from cytosol to mitochondria
- role of glycolytic intermediates and pyruvate as precursors for biosynthesis
- origins and metabolic fate of fructose and galactose in humans
- the polyol pathway
- the pentose phosphate pathway
- origin and roles of NADPH in different cells
- glutathione metabolism and functions
- glycogen: localization, function, and its advantages as energy storage, local and systemic roles of glycogen as glucose store, glycogen metabolism, its enzymes and mechanisms of regulation
- the medical importance of glycogen storage diseases
GLYCOCONJUGATES
- structure and functions
- types, origins, and activation of the monosaccharide units
- metabolism of O- glycoproteins and N-glycoproteins
- metabolism of glycosphingolipids
METABOLISM OF LIPIDS
- dietary lipids and fatty acids found in foods
- structure and role of essential fatty acids
- emulsification, enzymatic digestion and absorption of dietary lipids
- mechanisms of inter-organ transport of different lipids in blood
- lipoproteins: classification, composition, types, and roles
- fatty acid activation and metabolic fates
- fatty acid β-oxidation mechanisms and control
- peroxisomal oxidation of fatty acids
- fatty acid -oxidation
- ketone bodies: structure, metabolism, and metabolic relevance
- fatty acid biosynthesis: location, substrates, multi-enzyme complex mechanism, and regulation
- differences between β-oxidation and biosynthesis of fatty acids
- fatty acid chain elongation and desaturation
- triacylglycerides: structure, metabolism, and role as energy store
- structure, metabolism, and properties of glycerophospholipids, eicosanoids, and endocannabinoids
- cholesterol structure, functions, dietary origin and endogenous origin, esterification, transport in blood and into cells
- structure, origin and fate of LDL and HDL
METABOLISM OF AMINO ACIDS
- origins of amino acids in humans, digestion of dietary proteins
- intestinal amino acid and peptide transport
- protein turnover and mechanism of protein catabolism
- proteosomal proteolysis
- transamination of amino acids: mechanism, roles and importance of aminotransferases in medicine
- precursors, cofactors, and fundamentals of the biosynthesis of amino acids
- nitrogen balance and its physiological and pathological variations
- ammonia: formation, blood transport, and strategies for elimination
- urea cycle, its regulation and connection between urea cycle and tricarboxylic acid cycle
METABOLISM OF NUCLEOTIDES
- de novo synthesis and recycling pathways, catabolism, and medical significance of uric acid
VITAMINS IN HEALTH AND DISEASE
- sources, biochemical functions, and health benefits of hydrophilic and hydrophobic vitamins, consequences of vitamin deficiencies and excesses
METABOLIC INTERRELATIONSHIPS
- circulating and tissue stores of energy
- blood glucose regulation: endocrine control and relevance
- metabolic adaptations in the fed and fasting state
- metabolic adaptations in stress conditions
- structure, organization, and functional properties
- roles of the specific lipid, protein and carbohydrate components
- lateral and trans-bilayer motions of lipids
- microdomains as functional compartments
TRANSPORT ACROSS MEMBRANES
- mechanisms, roles, and control of diffusion and solute transport in homeostasis
- features and types of protein-mediated transport
- pores, channels and ionophores
- passive transmembrane transporters of ions
- primary active transporters: ATPases and ATP-binding cassette transporters
- the solute carrier family: transporters of glucose, amino acids, organic and inorganic compounds
- overview of vesicular transport
BIOCHEMISTRY OF HORMONES
- chemical structure and properties of hormonal classes
- hormone biosynthesis and release
- hormonal control and cyclic hormonal systems
- hormone receptors and properties
- action mechanism of lipophilic and hydrophilic hormones
ENZYMES
- definition, structure and properties
- mechanisms and kinetics
- nomenclature
- factors affecting enzymatic activity
- enzyme cofactors
- coenzymes
- isoenzymes
- enzyme efficiency and specificity
- mechanisms of inhibition
- regulatory mechanisms of enzyme activity
- properties of allosteric enzymes
- pseudoenzymes and moonlighting enzymes
- medical relevance of enzymes
CELLULAR METABOLISM
- definition, purposes, and features
- metabolic pathways: types, interconnections and control strategies
- metabolomics and relevance in medicine
- metabolism and epigenetics
CELLULAR STRATEGIES FOR ENERGY TRANSFER AND USE
- high-energy compounds
- properties and role of ATP as energy transporter
- biological oxidations: coenzymes and role in homeostasis
- energy flux and energy transformation in cells
- ATP formation by substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation
FUNDAMENTALS OF HUMAN NUTRITION
- functional types of nutrients
- essential nutrients and their importance in human health
- nutrient energy content: evaluation and measure units
- basal metabolic rate and factors influencing it
- total energetic requirement, its components and energetic needs for physical activity
THE TRICARBOXYLIC ACID CYCLE
- substrates, products, enzymes, cofactors, sites of energy recovery, and regulation
- the amphibolic role of the TCA cycle and roles of anaplerotic reactions
- the signaling role of the TCA cycle
THE MITOCHONDIAL RESPIRATORY CHAIN
- components, organization, and properties, energy flow
- the process of mitochondrial electron transfer
- inhibitors of the mitochondrial respiratory chain and role for altered mitochondrial respiratory chain in human diseases
ATP SYNTHASE
- structure and functional components, coupling between the respiratory chain and ATP formation
- mechanism of oxidative phosphorylation
- the ATP/ADP cycle, and the concept of respiratory control
- inhibitors and uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation
- the key role of O2 in cells, and its different uses
REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES
- definition and types of reactive oxygen species, production and clearance, effects in physiological and physio-pathological conditions
- nitric oxide production, functions and toxicity
- antioxidant defenses and redox homeostasis
METABOLISM OF CARBOHYDRATES
- structural and functional features of the major carbohydrates relevant to human metabolism
- digestion and absorption of dietary carbohydrates
- major metabolic fates of glucose and their roles
- glucose phosphorylation, importance in metabolism, and medical application in PET
- the glycolytic pathway
- energy production from anaerobic and aerobic glycolysis
- regulation of glycolysis by local and hormonal control
- metabolic fates of pyruvate produced by glycolysis
- shuttle mechanisms for transfer of reducing equivalents from cytosol to mitochondria
- role of glycolytic intermediates and pyruvate as precursors for biosynthesis
- origins and metabolic fate of fructose and galactose in humans
- the polyol pathway
- the pentose phosphate pathway
- origin and roles of NADPH in different cells
- glutathione metabolism and functions
- glycogen: localization, function, and its advantages as energy storage, local and systemic roles of glycogen as glucose store, glycogen metabolism, its enzymes and mechanisms of regulation
- the medical importance of glycogen storage diseases
GLYCOCONJUGATES
- structure and functions
- types, origins, and activation of the monosaccharide units
- metabolism of O- glycoproteins and N-glycoproteins
- metabolism of glycosphingolipids
METABOLISM OF LIPIDS
- dietary lipids and fatty acids found in foods
- structure and role of essential fatty acids
- emulsification, enzymatic digestion and absorption of dietary lipids
- mechanisms of inter-organ transport of different lipids in blood
- lipoproteins: classification, composition, types, and roles
- fatty acid activation and metabolic fates
- fatty acid β-oxidation mechanisms and control
- peroxisomal oxidation of fatty acids
- fatty acid -oxidation
- ketone bodies: structure, metabolism, and metabolic relevance
- fatty acid biosynthesis: location, substrates, multi-enzyme complex mechanism, and regulation
- differences between β-oxidation and biosynthesis of fatty acids
- fatty acid chain elongation and desaturation
- triacylglycerides: structure, metabolism, and role as energy store
- structure, metabolism, and properties of glycerophospholipids, eicosanoids, and endocannabinoids
- cholesterol structure, functions, dietary origin and endogenous origin, esterification, transport in blood and into cells
- structure, origin and fate of LDL and HDL
METABOLISM OF AMINO ACIDS
- origins of amino acids in humans, digestion of dietary proteins
- intestinal amino acid and peptide transport
- protein turnover and mechanism of protein catabolism
- proteosomal proteolysis
- transamination of amino acids: mechanism, roles and importance of aminotransferases in medicine
- precursors, cofactors, and fundamentals of the biosynthesis of amino acids
- nitrogen balance and its physiological and pathological variations
- ammonia: formation, blood transport, and strategies for elimination
- urea cycle, its regulation and connection between urea cycle and tricarboxylic acid cycle
METABOLISM OF NUCLEOTIDES
- de novo synthesis and recycling pathways, catabolism, and medical significance of uric acid
VITAMINS IN HEALTH AND DISEASE
- sources, biochemical functions, and health benefits of hydrophilic and hydrophobic vitamins, consequences of vitamin deficiencies and excesses
METABOLIC INTERRELATIONSHIPS
- circulating and tissue stores of energy
- blood glucose regulation: endocrine control and relevance
- metabolic adaptations in the fed and fasting state
- metabolic adaptations in stress conditions
Prerequisites for admission
To follow the Biochemistry course, students should have already acquired the following issues, provided in the FBS and CMG courses:
i. thermodynamics principles and laws;
ii. characteristics of chemical reactions: kinetics, equilibrium and energy
iii. biological oxidation, redox reactions and electrochemistry
iv. structure and chemical properties of carbohydrates, lipids, nucleotides, nucleic acids, amino acids, and proteins;
v. synthesis of nucleic acids and of proteins;
vi. cell structure, organization, and compartmentalization;
vii. mechanisms of signal transduction.
i. thermodynamics principles and laws;
ii. characteristics of chemical reactions: kinetics, equilibrium and energy
iii. biological oxidation, redox reactions and electrochemistry
iv. structure and chemical properties of carbohydrates, lipids, nucleotides, nucleic acids, amino acids, and proteins;
v. synthesis of nucleic acids and of proteins;
vi. cell structure, organization, and compartmentalization;
vii. mechanisms of signal transduction.
Teaching methods
Synchronous learning: lectures, problem-based learning, and case studies.
Teaching Resources
Devlin T.M. Textbook of biochemistry with clinical correlations. 7th ed. revised, 2019. · Lieberman M. and Marks A. "Marks' basic medical biochemistry: a clinical approach" 5th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2018. · Baynes J., Dominiczak M.H. Medical biochemistry. 5th edn, 2018, Elsevier On specific topics of the program, additional material will be made available during the course.
Assessment methods and Criteria
To take the Biochemistry exam, students must have already taken the FBS and CMG1 exams.
Students' evaluation will be assessed through a written and an oral examination.
The written test will be composed of 30 multiple choice questions. Each correct answer will value 1 point. The written test 1 has a threshold of 18/30, and will not contribute to the final mark. Only student who pass the written test will be allowed to take the oral examination.
Students must take the written and the oral exam in the same section.
The written and oral examinations will deal with all the topics covered in class, and detailed in the course syllabus.
The exam calendar will be scheduled starting from June 2024, and will include 3 sessions in June-July 2024, 2 sessions in September 2024, and 2 sessions in January-February 2025.
Attendance is required to be allowed to take the exam. Unexcused absence is tolerated up to 34% of the course activities. University policy regarding excused illness is followed.
Registration to both written and oral exams through SIFA is mandatory.
Students' evaluation will be assessed through a written and an oral examination.
The written test will be composed of 30 multiple choice questions. Each correct answer will value 1 point. The written test 1 has a threshold of 18/30, and will not contribute to the final mark. Only student who pass the written test will be allowed to take the oral examination.
Students must take the written and the oral exam in the same section.
The written and oral examinations will deal with all the topics covered in class, and detailed in the course syllabus.
The exam calendar will be scheduled starting from June 2024, and will include 3 sessions in June-July 2024, 2 sessions in September 2024, and 2 sessions in January-February 2025.
Attendance is required to be allowed to take the exam. Unexcused absence is tolerated up to 34% of the course activities. University policy regarding excused illness is followed.
Registration to both written and oral exams through SIFA is mandatory.
BIO/10 - BIOCHEMISTRY - University credits: 6
Practicals: 8 hours
Lessons: 66 hours
Lessons: 66 hours
Professors:
Aureli Massimo, Lunghi Giulia
Educational website(s)
Professor(s)