Human Physiology
A.Y. 2025/2026
Learning objectives
The teaching aims to provide a deep preparation on the functions of organ systems, as well as their integrated view, as an assumption to the study of diseases affecting the human body. Great attention will be addressed to the description of physiological mechanisms at cellular and molecular level as a possible target of pharmacological therapies. The teaching will also provide knowledge of the main tests/methods for evaluating the functionality of organs and systems. The theoretical and practical knowledge in physiology will be forwarded through logical and 'problem solving' approaches, rather than mnemonic, and by a correct technical terminology that would allow students to efficiently talk with a proper medical-scientific terminology, then moving to the following educational path. Aim of the teaching is that participants acquire knowledge and an advanced scientific background to implement the professional skills of the pharmacist. The educational objective of this teaching, indeed, is to stimulate the health-care informant abilities to general public, so that the pharmacist can represent a connection among patients, medical doctors and public health system, proposing healthy lifestyles as well as providing expertise for the management of pathophysiological and/or physiotherapeutic issues.
Expected learning outcomes
After teaching completion, the student should achieve a basic and advanced skills on the functions of the human body, in an integrated view of the biological mechanisms involved. The student should also achieve competences on the main tests/methods for evaluating the functionality of organs and systems. The teaching is expecting to develop in the student the abilities/competences, as well as disciplinary and methodological skills, which will enable to understand the biological aspects of the next professionalizing courses and to face and solve logical problems related to biological needs as well as their possible alterations. The expected learning includes also other soft skills, like study strategies to implement the learning abilities and a continuous scientific/professional updating; adequate communication skills and medical-scientific terminology, to establish a close link among patients, medical doctors and the public health system; ruling skills which allow to the next pharmacist a solid counseling activity.
Lesson period: Activity scheduled over several sessions (see Course syllabus and organization section for more detailed information).
Assessment methods: Esame
Assessment result: voto verbalizzato in trentesimi
Single course
This course cannot be attended as a single course. Please check our list of single courses to find the ones available for enrolment.
Course syllabus and organization
Linea AL
Responsible
Lesson period
year
Course syllabus
I SEMESTER. CELLULAR PHYSIOLOGY
This unit addresses the organization and biophysical properties of cells and tissues. Basic concepts in cell and membrane physiology are synthesized through exploring the function of epithelial, neuronal and muscle cells. The following topics will be covered:
1. INTRODUCTION
What is physiology? Main characteristics of a living being. Cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organism. Liquid compartments composition in the body. Homeostasis.
2. BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES AND TRANSPORT PHENOMENA
Structure and function of biological membranes. Transport through biological membranes: Simple diffusion and Fick's law. Facilitated diffusion and Michaelis-Menten equation. Ionic channels, Transporters, and pumps. Primary active transport: ATPases. Secondary active transport, property, and function. Vesicle-mediated Transport. Osmosis: osmotic pressure. Complex biological barriers: epithelia
3. MEMBRANE POTENTIAL
Resting membrane potential. Equilibrium potentials. Nernst's law. Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz equation. Electrical analogue of a membrane. Extracellular and intracellular recording techniques.
4. CELL COMMUNICATION I: HORMONAL SIGNALS.
Hormone chemistry, synthesis, and secretion. Regulatory mechanisms and mechanisms of action of hormones. Endocrine disruptors
5. CELL COMMUNICATION II: NERVOUS SIGNALS
Neurons and glial cells. The graduate potential and action potential. Generation and propagation of the action potential: ionic and molecular bases. Relative and absolute refractory period. Myelin and saltatory conduction Action potentials in excitable cells.
Synaptic transmission. Electrical and chemical synapses. Neurotransmitters, ionotropic and metabotropic receptors, vesicular and membrane neurotransmitter transporters. Excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials and synaptic integration.
6. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MUSCLE CELL.
Skeletal muscle: electrical and mechanical phenomena. Molecular mechanism of contraction. Excitation-contraction coupling. Regulation of muscle contraction. Classification of muscle fibers.
Cardiac muscle. Electrical activity of Pacemaker and cardiac cells. Heartbeat origin and excitement propagation. Contractile activity.
Smooth muscle. Excitation-contraction coupling in smooth muscle. Molecular mechanism of smooth muscle contraction.
7. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Functional organization of the central and peripheral nervous system (in brief)
Sensory function. Transduction and coding of sensory information in sense receptors and organs. Somatosensory perception. Nociception and the control of painful stimuli. Visual system: elements of optics, pupillary reflexes, the retina, photoreceptors and phototransduction, analysis of visual information in cortical circuits. Hearing: elements of acoustics, the cochlea, ciliated cells and mechanotransduction, analysis of acustic information in cortical circuits.
Motor function. The simple reflexes. Voluntary movements. Central control of motor activity. Role of the nuclei of the base and cerebellum. Mirror neurons.
Complex functions: learning and memory, molecular mechanisms of learning and memory, sleep and wake, language, emotions.
II SEMESTER. HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY.
This unit addresses the organization and functioning of organs and systems of normal human body. The regulatory mechanisms and the contributions of each system to the body homeostasis will be emphasized. The functioning of the following systems will be covered:
8. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Hypothalamic-pituitary relationships, hypothalamic hormones, neurohypophysis, and anterior pituitary. The endocrine axes.
Hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axis. Thyroid hormones: synthesis, secretion, regulation, and action Hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis. Adrenal hormones and the stress response
Hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal axis. Steroid sex hormones, sexual determination and differentiation.
Hormonal control of glucose metabolism: insulin and glucagon.
Hormonal control of Ca2+, K+ and PO4- homeostasis: vitamin D, parathyroid hormone, and calcitonin.
9. BLOOD, HEART AND CIRCULATION
Blood. Plasma: ions, protein, and non-protein components. Blood Cells: erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets. The red blood cell: functional characteristics, membrane properties and Hamburger phenomenon. Haemoglobin and the O2 transport.
Heart. Electrical cycle: origin of the heartbeat and propagation of excitement. Cardiac Mechanical cycle: cardiac pressures and volumes in the cardiac cycle. Frank and Starling's law. Systolic and cardiac output. Cardiac output control. The role of the autonomic nervous system.
Blood circulation. Arteries, capillaries and venous. Hydrodynamics of blood circulation. Laplace's law, Bernoulli's law. Blood pressure. Peripheral resistance: central and local control. Microcirculation and osmotic/oncotic pressure. Edema and lymphatic system.
Integrated Physiology Integrated blood pressure control.
10. BREATHING AND TRANSPORT OF RESPIRATORY GASES
Gas properties. Ventilation. Breathing Mechanics. Respiratory muscles. Spirometry and lung volumes. Ventilation and gas exchange.
Oxygen transport: haemoglobin, oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve. CO2 transport. Tissue breathing.
Integrated Physiology: Control of respiration.
11. KIDNEY FUNCTION
Kidney. Nephron. Glomerular filtration (FG). Factors influencing FG. Measurement of FG flow. Tubular function. Reabsorption mechanisms. Titration curve for glucose. Tubular secretion. Henle loop. Collector duct.
12. HYDRO-SALINE INTEGRATION and ACID-BASE BALANCE
Counter current multiplication. Hormones action on kidney function. The antidiuretic hormone. Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system.
Integrated Physiology Integrated control of Na+, K+ concentration.
Integrated Physiology Integrated control of plasma volume and blood pressure
Integrated Physiology Mechanisms of pH control. Buffer systems. Effects of breathing on the acid-base balance. Kidney regulation. Alterations of the acid-base balance: alkalosis and acidosis.
13. GASTROINTESTINAL FUNCTION and PHYSIOLOGY OF ALIMENTATION
Functions of the digestive system. Motility: swallowing, peristalsis, and segmentation. Secretion: salivary, gastric, pancreatic secretions. Liver and bile. Digestion and absorption of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids. Processes of water and electrolytes absorption.
Integrated Physiology. Neuronal control of the digestive system. Eating behaviour.
PRACTICAL COURSE
- Methods of analysis of brain function
- Respiratory function: the spirometry
- Heart function: the electrocardiogram
- Principles and techniques of manual blood pressure measurement
- Renal function: the clearance
- First Aid Guide and Emergency Treatment Instructions - Body Life Support and Defibrillation (fBLSD)
This unit addresses the organization and biophysical properties of cells and tissues. Basic concepts in cell and membrane physiology are synthesized through exploring the function of epithelial, neuronal and muscle cells. The following topics will be covered:
1. INTRODUCTION
What is physiology? Main characteristics of a living being. Cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organism. Liquid compartments composition in the body. Homeostasis.
2. BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES AND TRANSPORT PHENOMENA
Structure and function of biological membranes. Transport through biological membranes: Simple diffusion and Fick's law. Facilitated diffusion and Michaelis-Menten equation. Ionic channels, Transporters, and pumps. Primary active transport: ATPases. Secondary active transport, property, and function. Vesicle-mediated Transport. Osmosis: osmotic pressure. Complex biological barriers: epithelia
3. MEMBRANE POTENTIAL
Resting membrane potential. Equilibrium potentials. Nernst's law. Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz equation. Electrical analogue of a membrane. Extracellular and intracellular recording techniques.
4. CELL COMMUNICATION I: HORMONAL SIGNALS.
Hormone chemistry, synthesis, and secretion. Regulatory mechanisms and mechanisms of action of hormones. Endocrine disruptors
5. CELL COMMUNICATION II: NERVOUS SIGNALS
Neurons and glial cells. The graduate potential and action potential. Generation and propagation of the action potential: ionic and molecular bases. Relative and absolute refractory period. Myelin and saltatory conduction Action potentials in excitable cells.
Synaptic transmission. Electrical and chemical synapses. Neurotransmitters, ionotropic and metabotropic receptors, vesicular and membrane neurotransmitter transporters. Excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials and synaptic integration.
6. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MUSCLE CELL.
Skeletal muscle: electrical and mechanical phenomena. Molecular mechanism of contraction. Excitation-contraction coupling. Regulation of muscle contraction. Classification of muscle fibers.
Cardiac muscle. Electrical activity of Pacemaker and cardiac cells. Heartbeat origin and excitement propagation. Contractile activity.
Smooth muscle. Excitation-contraction coupling in smooth muscle. Molecular mechanism of smooth muscle contraction.
7. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Functional organization of the central and peripheral nervous system (in brief)
Sensory function. Transduction and coding of sensory information in sense receptors and organs. Somatosensory perception. Nociception and the control of painful stimuli. Visual system: elements of optics, pupillary reflexes, the retina, photoreceptors and phototransduction, analysis of visual information in cortical circuits. Hearing: elements of acoustics, the cochlea, ciliated cells and mechanotransduction, analysis of acustic information in cortical circuits.
Motor function. The simple reflexes. Voluntary movements. Central control of motor activity. Role of the nuclei of the base and cerebellum. Mirror neurons.
Complex functions: learning and memory, molecular mechanisms of learning and memory, sleep and wake, language, emotions.
II SEMESTER. HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY.
This unit addresses the organization and functioning of organs and systems of normal human body. The regulatory mechanisms and the contributions of each system to the body homeostasis will be emphasized. The functioning of the following systems will be covered:
8. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Hypothalamic-pituitary relationships, hypothalamic hormones, neurohypophysis, and anterior pituitary. The endocrine axes.
Hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axis. Thyroid hormones: synthesis, secretion, regulation, and action Hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis. Adrenal hormones and the stress response
Hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal axis. Steroid sex hormones, sexual determination and differentiation.
Hormonal control of glucose metabolism: insulin and glucagon.
Hormonal control of Ca2+, K+ and PO4- homeostasis: vitamin D, parathyroid hormone, and calcitonin.
9. BLOOD, HEART AND CIRCULATION
Blood. Plasma: ions, protein, and non-protein components. Blood Cells: erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets. The red blood cell: functional characteristics, membrane properties and Hamburger phenomenon. Haemoglobin and the O2 transport.
Heart. Electrical cycle: origin of the heartbeat and propagation of excitement. Cardiac Mechanical cycle: cardiac pressures and volumes in the cardiac cycle. Frank and Starling's law. Systolic and cardiac output. Cardiac output control. The role of the autonomic nervous system.
Blood circulation. Arteries, capillaries and venous. Hydrodynamics of blood circulation. Laplace's law, Bernoulli's law. Blood pressure. Peripheral resistance: central and local control. Microcirculation and osmotic/oncotic pressure. Edema and lymphatic system.
Integrated Physiology Integrated blood pressure control.
10. BREATHING AND TRANSPORT OF RESPIRATORY GASES
Gas properties. Ventilation. Breathing Mechanics. Respiratory muscles. Spirometry and lung volumes. Ventilation and gas exchange.
Oxygen transport: haemoglobin, oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve. CO2 transport. Tissue breathing.
Integrated Physiology: Control of respiration.
11. KIDNEY FUNCTION
Kidney. Nephron. Glomerular filtration (FG). Factors influencing FG. Measurement of FG flow. Tubular function. Reabsorption mechanisms. Titration curve for glucose. Tubular secretion. Henle loop. Collector duct.
12. HYDRO-SALINE INTEGRATION and ACID-BASE BALANCE
Counter current multiplication. Hormones action on kidney function. The antidiuretic hormone. Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system.
Integrated Physiology Integrated control of Na+, K+ concentration.
Integrated Physiology Integrated control of plasma volume and blood pressure
Integrated Physiology Mechanisms of pH control. Buffer systems. Effects of breathing on the acid-base balance. Kidney regulation. Alterations of the acid-base balance: alkalosis and acidosis.
13. GASTROINTESTINAL FUNCTION and PHYSIOLOGY OF ALIMENTATION
Functions of the digestive system. Motility: swallowing, peristalsis, and segmentation. Secretion: salivary, gastric, pancreatic secretions. Liver and bile. Digestion and absorption of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids. Processes of water and electrolytes absorption.
Integrated Physiology. Neuronal control of the digestive system. Eating behaviour.
PRACTICAL COURSE
- Methods of analysis of brain function
- Respiratory function: the spirometry
- Heart function: the electrocardiogram
- Principles and techniques of manual blood pressure measurement
- Renal function: the clearance
- First Aid Guide and Emergency Treatment Instructions - Body Life Support and Defibrillation (fBLSD)
Prerequisites for admission
Students taking this course are expected to have a background in physics, biology and anatomy.
Teaching methods
Frontal and practical lessons, interactive multimedia platforms
Teaching Resources
Textbooks
· "Human Physiology, an integrated approach", D.U. Silverthorn, Pearson
· "Principles of Human Physiology" - Stanfield Cindy L., Pearson
· "Human physiology" - Berne and Levy, Elsevier
Reference books
· "Netter's Essential Physiology", Netter FH, Mulroney SE, Myers AK. Elsevier
· "Medical Physiology", Boron WF, Boulpaep EL. Elsevier
· "Medical Physiology" Guyton AC, Hall J.E. Elsevier-Saunder
· "Neuroscienze", Purves - Augustine - Fitzpatrick - Hall - Lamantia - Mooney - Platt - White. Oxford University Press
· "Principles of Neural Science" Eric Kandel, James H. Schwartz, and Thomas Jessell, Elsevier,
Classroom presentations and teaching materials available on myARIEL web site
· "Human Physiology, an integrated approach", D.U. Silverthorn, Pearson
· "Principles of Human Physiology" - Stanfield Cindy L., Pearson
· "Human physiology" - Berne and Levy, Elsevier
Reference books
· "Netter's Essential Physiology", Netter FH, Mulroney SE, Myers AK. Elsevier
· "Medical Physiology", Boron WF, Boulpaep EL. Elsevier
· "Medical Physiology" Guyton AC, Hall J.E. Elsevier-Saunder
· "Neuroscienze", Purves - Augustine - Fitzpatrick - Hall - Lamantia - Mooney - Platt - White. Oxford University Press
· "Principles of Neural Science" Eric Kandel, James H. Schwartz, and Thomas Jessell, Elsevier,
Classroom presentations and teaching materials available on myARIEL web site
Assessment methods and Criteria
Oral examination to ascertain the candidate's knowledge on the topics covered during the course.
The exam consists of three questions: the first relating to cellular physiology and the other two concerning organs functioning and regulation. The examination is passed if the candidate demonstrates that he/she has acquired and understood the principles of cell and organ functioning and the mechanisms of their homeostatic regulation (not the simple "learning by heart").
For student attending the courses, an on-going evaluation is planned in written form (with open and multiple-choice questions) during the teaching-break (generally February). In case of positive result, at the end of the course, the students will be evaluated by oral examination only on general and integrated physiology. The final grade is the weighted average (5 CFU for cellular physiology and 6 CFU for general physiology) of the two votes. The evaluation is released at the end of the test and submitted to the candidate for acceptance.
The assessment includes a range of: minimum marks (18-23/30) if sufficient preparation is demonstrated; intermediate marks (24-27/30) if the student shows a good knowledge of all the topics covered in the exam; high marks (28-30/30) if the student shows an excellent knowledge of all the topics covered in the exam and excellent communication skills. The student is awarded with the highest mark (30 lode) if he will demonstrate ability to deepen the topics.
The exam consists of three questions: the first relating to cellular physiology and the other two concerning organs functioning and regulation. The examination is passed if the candidate demonstrates that he/she has acquired and understood the principles of cell and organ functioning and the mechanisms of their homeostatic regulation (not the simple "learning by heart").
For student attending the courses, an on-going evaluation is planned in written form (with open and multiple-choice questions) during the teaching-break (generally February). In case of positive result, at the end of the course, the students will be evaluated by oral examination only on general and integrated physiology. The final grade is the weighted average (5 CFU for cellular physiology and 6 CFU for general physiology) of the two votes. The evaluation is released at the end of the test and submitted to the candidate for acceptance.
The assessment includes a range of: minimum marks (18-23/30) if sufficient preparation is demonstrated; intermediate marks (24-27/30) if the student shows a good knowledge of all the topics covered in the exam; high marks (28-30/30) if the student shows an excellent knowledge of all the topics covered in the exam and excellent communication skills. The student is awarded with the highest mark (30 lode) if he will demonstrate ability to deepen the topics.
BIO/09 - PHYSIOLOGY - University credits: 11
Practicals: 16 hours
Lessons: 80 hours
Lessons: 80 hours
Professor:
Perego Carla
Linea MZ
Responsible
Lesson period
year
BIO/09 - PHYSIOLOGY - University credits: 11
Practicals: 16 hours
Lessons: 80 hours
Lessons: 80 hours
Professor:
Magnaghi Valerio
Professor(s)
Reception:
Monday to Friday, by appointment
Via Balzaretti 9, 4th floor