Statistic, Epidemiology a History of Medicine
A.Y. 2026/2027
Learning objectives
The course is aimed at providing students with:
- advanced knowledge of the history of medicine, in order to better understand the evolution of the work profiles of healthcare professionals and physicians;
- awareness of "human facts", usually regarded as "past", whose knowledge promotes the encounter between the past and the present features of mankind, with the aim of providing benefits to future human beings;
- the statistical knowledge necessary to develop a data set and write reports describing analyses and related results for research and/or management purposes in the context of healthcare services;
- the core purposes, research methods and application areas of Epidemiology.
- advanced knowledge of the history of medicine, in order to better understand the evolution of the work profiles of healthcare professionals and physicians;
- awareness of "human facts", usually regarded as "past", whose knowledge promotes the encounter between the past and the present features of mankind, with the aim of providing benefits to future human beings;
- the statistical knowledge necessary to develop a data set and write reports describing analyses and related results for research and/or management purposes in the context of healthcare services;
- the core purposes, research methods and application areas of Epidemiology.
Expected learning outcomes
At the end of the course, the student will be able to:
- select and apply basic and advanced theoretical models of statistics and probability;
- assess the reliability of measures in the biomedical field and interpret statistical and epidemiological data for the progressive improvement of care and rehabilitation processes;
- collaborate in quantitative and qualitative research projects and verify the application of research results for further improvement of rehabilitation processes
- document one's own rehabilitative practice;
- describe the history and evolution of Medicine
- select and apply basic and advanced theoretical models of statistics and probability;
- assess the reliability of measures in the biomedical field and interpret statistical and epidemiological data for the progressive improvement of care and rehabilitation processes;
- collaborate in quantitative and qualitative research projects and verify the application of research results for further improvement of rehabilitation processes
- document one's own rehabilitative practice;
- describe the history and evolution of Medicine
Lesson period: First semester
Assessment methods: Esame
Assessment result: voto verbalizzato in trentesimi
Single course
This course can be attended as a single course.
Course syllabus and organization
Single session
Prerequisites for admission
No prior knowledge is required
Assessment methods and Criteria
The assessment of learning outcomes takes place through a test administered via the Moodle/SEB platform in the University's computer lab, organized in specific exam sessions in accordance with the Regulations. For each academic year, up to a maximum of six exam sessions may be scheduled; two in each session.
The questions refer to the slides presented in class and available on ARIEL, the recommended textbooks, and the bibliography provided by the instructor. The final grade is expressed out of 30 and is calculated as the weighted average of MED/42 (2 CFU), MED/01 (3 CFU), and MED/02 (1 CFU).
The results are published on the degree programme's ARIEL website, and the grade is formally recorded through the University's online procedure by the Chair of the Examination Board. The exam will be based on the indicated bibliography and on the materials/topics discussed during the lectures.
The exam tests will take place in person; the dates will be scheduled and communicated 60 days before the exam sessions, and the results will be published confidentially on the lecturers' MyAriel pages. Students may withdraw from the test at any time and may review their paper by arranging an appointment by email with the lecturer.
No midterm tests or pre-exam sessions are planned.
No teaching materials, notes, smartphones, or smartwatches are allowed during the test.
General and Applied Hygiene (2 CFU)
The final test consists of 30 multiple-choice questions on the Moodle/SEB platform. The allotted time to complete the exam is 30 minutes.
History of Medicine (1 CFU)
The final test is in paper format and consists of 15 multiple-choice questions. The allotted time to complete the exam is 30 minutes.
Medical Statistics (3 CFU)
The final test is written and consists of a combination of open-ended questions, formulated as problem-solving tasks and further divided into sub-questions, and multiple-choice questions (1 correct answer, 4 incorrect answers). For the written test, students must bring a calculator and the probability distribution tables covered in class and available on the Ariel platform. It is also possible to bring a brief formula sheet summarizing the formulas covered during the year. Each exercise in the test includes the score assigned to its correct completion. Students who achieve a score above 30 are awarded honors. The results are communicated to students through the Ariel platform. The exam lasts 90 minutes.
The questions refer to the slides presented in class and available on ARIEL, the recommended textbooks, and the bibliography provided by the instructor. The final grade is expressed out of 30 and is calculated as the weighted average of MED/42 (2 CFU), MED/01 (3 CFU), and MED/02 (1 CFU).
The results are published on the degree programme's ARIEL website, and the grade is formally recorded through the University's online procedure by the Chair of the Examination Board. The exam will be based on the indicated bibliography and on the materials/topics discussed during the lectures.
The exam tests will take place in person; the dates will be scheduled and communicated 60 days before the exam sessions, and the results will be published confidentially on the lecturers' MyAriel pages. Students may withdraw from the test at any time and may review their paper by arranging an appointment by email with the lecturer.
No midterm tests or pre-exam sessions are planned.
No teaching materials, notes, smartphones, or smartwatches are allowed during the test.
General and Applied Hygiene (2 CFU)
The final test consists of 30 multiple-choice questions on the Moodle/SEB platform. The allotted time to complete the exam is 30 minutes.
History of Medicine (1 CFU)
The final test is in paper format and consists of 15 multiple-choice questions. The allotted time to complete the exam is 30 minutes.
Medical Statistics (3 CFU)
The final test is written and consists of a combination of open-ended questions, formulated as problem-solving tasks and further divided into sub-questions, and multiple-choice questions (1 correct answer, 4 incorrect answers). For the written test, students must bring a calculator and the probability distribution tables covered in class and available on the Ariel platform. It is also possible to bring a brief formula sheet summarizing the formulas covered during the year. Each exercise in the test includes the score assigned to its correct completion. Students who achieve a score above 30 are awarded honors. The results are communicated to students through the Ariel platform. The exam lasts 90 minutes.
Medical statistics
Course syllabus
- Evaluation of the reliability of methods for collecting and measuring data of biomedical interest
- Reliability of a measurement, sample, population, estimate, and parameter
- Causes of systematic errors and random errors
- Variability of quantitative characteristics within individuals and between individuals
- Descriptive methods: interpretation of graphical representations of a distribution; concepts of mean, dispersion, and shape of a distribution; calculation of the main measures of location and dispersion of a distribution; meaning of measures of accuracy and precision of measurements; meaning of quantiles (quartiles, percentiles) and reference limits; correlation and Kappa statistic
- Gaussian model: interpretation of population data; characteristics of the Gaussian model of measurement error distribution
- Screening tests: concepts of union and intersection of events; concept of probability; calculation of the probability of an event, the intersection of independent events, and conditional events; logical basis of the screening test; definitions of false positive and false negative results with respect to a threshold value of the diagnostic marker; concepts of sensitivity and specificity of a diagnostic test or symptom; calculation and discussion of positive and negative predictive value; likelihood ratio for a positive result or for a negative result in a diagnostic test; the concept of pre-test and post-test probability and odds; Bayes' theorem
- Sample estimation of population parameters from data expressed in various forms: the concept of sampling variability; distinction between sample and population; distinction between sample estimate of a parameter and population parameter
- Sampling distribution: distribution of sample estimates; standard error of a sample estimate
- Confidence interval and its meaning
- Hypothesis testing: Type I and Type II error; power of a test; logical basis of sample size calculation; difference between statistical significance and clinical relevance; construction of a statistical test related to hypotheses about the population mean (known variance); test of independence between variables: chi-square
- Deterministic model and probabilistic model: differences between the two models; characteristics of the simple linear regression model and meaning of the parameters of simple linear regression; hypothesis testing on the parameters of the simple linear regression model; how to adjust for a confounding variable in the association between two sets of data
- Reliability of a measurement, sample, population, estimate, and parameter
- Causes of systematic errors and random errors
- Variability of quantitative characteristics within individuals and between individuals
- Descriptive methods: interpretation of graphical representations of a distribution; concepts of mean, dispersion, and shape of a distribution; calculation of the main measures of location and dispersion of a distribution; meaning of measures of accuracy and precision of measurements; meaning of quantiles (quartiles, percentiles) and reference limits; correlation and Kappa statistic
- Gaussian model: interpretation of population data; characteristics of the Gaussian model of measurement error distribution
- Screening tests: concepts of union and intersection of events; concept of probability; calculation of the probability of an event, the intersection of independent events, and conditional events; logical basis of the screening test; definitions of false positive and false negative results with respect to a threshold value of the diagnostic marker; concepts of sensitivity and specificity of a diagnostic test or symptom; calculation and discussion of positive and negative predictive value; likelihood ratio for a positive result or for a negative result in a diagnostic test; the concept of pre-test and post-test probability and odds; Bayes' theorem
- Sample estimation of population parameters from data expressed in various forms: the concept of sampling variability; distinction between sample and population; distinction between sample estimate of a parameter and population parameter
- Sampling distribution: distribution of sample estimates; standard error of a sample estimate
- Confidence interval and its meaning
- Hypothesis testing: Type I and Type II error; power of a test; logical basis of sample size calculation; difference between statistical significance and clinical relevance; construction of a statistical test related to hypotheses about the population mean (known variance); test of independence between variables: chi-square
- Deterministic model and probabilistic model: differences between the two models; characteristics of the simple linear regression model and meaning of the parameters of simple linear regression; hypothesis testing on the parameters of the simple linear regression model; how to adjust for a confounding variable in the association between two sets of data
Teaching methods
The course is taught through expository methods based on lectures, during which practical examples will be provided to facilitate understanding and learning. Active teaching methods will also be used, such as plenary application exercises, designed to help students acquire operational skills after the presentation of concepts and procedures.
Within the "Statistica, epidemiologia e storia della sanità" section on MyAriel, in the area dedicated to the Medical Statistics module, students will find the slides supporting the lectures, the materials used in class, and exercises for the final exam, all intended to facilitate independent study.
Within the "Statistica, epidemiologia e storia della sanità" section on MyAriel, in the area dedicated to the Medical Statistics module, students will find the slides supporting the lectures, the materials used in class, and exercises for the final exam, all intended to facilitate independent study.
Teaching Resources
- M. Pagano e K. Gauvreau Biostatistica (2ª edition) Editore: Idelson-Gnocchi 2003
- M. Bland Statistica medica (Idee & strumenti) http://www.deastore.com/autore/Martin Bland.html Editore: Apogeo 2009
- JF. Jekel, DL. Katz, JG. Elmore, DMG. Wild Epidemiologia Biostatistica e Medicina Preventiva (3ª edition) Editore: Masson 2009
- M. Bland Statistica medica (Idee & strumenti) http://www.deastore.com/autore/Martin Bland.html Editore: Apogeo 2009
- JF. Jekel, DL. Katz, JG. Elmore, DMG. Wild Epidemiologia Biostatistica e Medicina Preventiva (3ª edition) Editore: Masson 2009
Hygiene and public health
Course syllabus
1.Meaning and use of the epidemiological method: from data analysis to planning and evaluation within the health system
2.Use of health and demographic data in epidemiology
- Main sources of health and demographic data
- Indicators: meaning and use
- Guided analysis of current health data
3.Measures of frequency:
- Ratios, proportions, rates
- Concept of prevalence, incidence, incidence density, cumulative incidence
- Standardization of rates
- Guided exercises
4.Study designs and their application
- Ecological (or correlation) studies and their application: searching for differences. Case study
- Prevalence studies and their application: case study
- Cohort studies and their application
- Case-control studies and their application
- Experimental studies
5.Measures of association and impact: relative risk, odds ratio, attributable risk as an absolute measure and as a relative measure
6.Studies for evaluating preventive trials
- Epidemiological impact of vaccinations
- Evaluation and meaning of screening tests
7.Global Health
- Key concepts and definition of Global Health; its evolution from tropical medicine to public health and international health.
- Global burden of disease, epidemiological transition, and global indicators of progress in health; recent phenomena and the future of Global Health
- Socioeconomic determinants of health
- United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
- Tuberculosis as a model for Global Health
- World Health Organization and other actors; international cooperation; major challenges: migration and climate change
2.Use of health and demographic data in epidemiology
- Main sources of health and demographic data
- Indicators: meaning and use
- Guided analysis of current health data
3.Measures of frequency:
- Ratios, proportions, rates
- Concept of prevalence, incidence, incidence density, cumulative incidence
- Standardization of rates
- Guided exercises
4.Study designs and their application
- Ecological (or correlation) studies and their application: searching for differences. Case study
- Prevalence studies and their application: case study
- Cohort studies and their application
- Case-control studies and their application
- Experimental studies
5.Measures of association and impact: relative risk, odds ratio, attributable risk as an absolute measure and as a relative measure
6.Studies for evaluating preventive trials
- Epidemiological impact of vaccinations
- Evaluation and meaning of screening tests
7.Global Health
- Key concepts and definition of Global Health; its evolution from tropical medicine to public health and international health.
- Global burden of disease, epidemiological transition, and global indicators of progress in health; recent phenomena and the future of Global Health
- Socioeconomic determinants of health
- United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
- Tuberculosis as a model for Global Health
- World Health Organization and other actors; international cooperation; major challenges: migration and climate change
Teaching methods
The course is taught entirely through expository methods based on lectures, during which practical examples will be provided to facilitate understanding and learning. Active teaching methods will also be used, such as group work culminating in an in-class presentation, designed to encourage discussion and the application of course content.
Within the "Statistica, epidemiologia e storia della sanità" section on MyAriel, in the area dedicated to the General and Applied Hygiene module, students will find the slides supporting the lectures, intended to facilitate independent study.
Within the "Statistica, epidemiologia e storia della sanità" section on MyAriel, in the area dedicated to the General and Applied Hygiene module, students will find the slides supporting the lectures, intended to facilitate independent study.
Teaching Resources
- Pontello M, Auxilia F. «Igiene, Medicina Preventiva e Salute Globale» Ed. Piccin
- Lopalco PL, Tozzi AE. «Epidemiologia facile» Il pensiero scientifico editore
- Skolnik R. Global Health 101, 3rd Edition. Jones & Bartlett Learning, 2016
- Slide
- Articles and materials provided by the teacher
- Lopalco PL, Tozzi AE. «Epidemiologia facile» Il pensiero scientifico editore
- Skolnik R. Global Health 101, 3rd Edition. Jones & Bartlett Learning, 2016
- Slide
- Articles and materials provided by the teacher
Medical history
Course syllabus
- Origins and meaning of Medicine and the History of Medicine
- Sources for study and research: medicine in ancient Greece and Rome; medieval medicine; understanding the body: Renaissance and anatomia animata, iatrophysics and iatrochemistry; microscopic anatomy
- The Enlightenment and public health: occupational diseases, hygiene and preventive medicine, vaccination prophylaxis, orthopedics, humane treatment of the mentally ill
- The birth of the Clinic and its tools: semiotics, diagnostics, and therapy; the problems of surgery and their resolution: analgesia, anesthesia, asepsis, and antisepsis. Cell theory and microbiology
- The 20th century: new concepts, tools, and therapies; evolution and transformation of hospital settings
- Elements of the history of healthcare in Lombardy
- Sources for study and research: medicine in ancient Greece and Rome; medieval medicine; understanding the body: Renaissance and anatomia animata, iatrophysics and iatrochemistry; microscopic anatomy
- The Enlightenment and public health: occupational diseases, hygiene and preventive medicine, vaccination prophylaxis, orthopedics, humane treatment of the mentally ill
- The birth of the Clinic and its tools: semiotics, diagnostics, and therapy; the problems of surgery and their resolution: analgesia, anesthesia, asepsis, and antisepsis. Cell theory and microbiology
- The 20th century: new concepts, tools, and therapies; evolution and transformation of hospital settings
- Elements of the history of healthcare in Lombardy
Teaching methods
The course is taught almost entirely through expository methods based on lectures, during which practical examples will be provided to facilitate understanding and learning. Active teaching methods will also be used, such as a guided visit to the "I Tesori della Ca' Granda" museum and to the crypt, during which the lecturer will present the topics covered and ask prompting questions, encouraging students' individual reflection.
Within the "Statistica, epidemiologia e storia della sanità" section on MyAriel, in the area dedicated to the History of Medicine module, students will find only the slides supporting the lectures, intended to facilitate independent study.
Within the "Statistica, epidemiologia e storia della sanità" section on MyAriel, in the area dedicated to the History of Medicine module, students will find only the slides supporting the lectures, intended to facilitate independent study.
Teaching Resources
- Porro A., Franchini A.F., Cristini C., Galimberti P.M. Lorusso L., Falconi B., Lezioni Di Storia Della Medicina. Gli Strumenti 3, Rudiano, Gam, 2013.
- Porro A., Cristini C., Falconi B., Franchini A.F., Galimberti P.M., Lorusso L., Lezioni Di Storia Della Medicina 2, -Rudiano, Gam, 2011.
- Porro A., Falconi B., Franchini A.F. Lezioni Di Storia Della Medicina 1, Rudiano, Gam Editrice, 2009.
- Porro A., Storia Della Medicina 1 (Fino Al Xix Secolo). In Appendice: Storia Dell'odontoiatria, Rudiano, Gam Editrice, 2009.
- Belloni L., Per La Storia Della Medicina, Sala Bolognese, Forni, 1990.
- Porro A., Cristini C., Falconi B., Franchini A.F., Galimberti P.M., Lorusso L., Lezioni Di Storia Della Medicina 2, -Rudiano, Gam, 2011.
- Porro A., Falconi B., Franchini A.F. Lezioni Di Storia Della Medicina 1, Rudiano, Gam Editrice, 2009.
- Porro A., Storia Della Medicina 1 (Fino Al Xix Secolo). In Appendice: Storia Dell'odontoiatria, Rudiano, Gam Editrice, 2009.
- Belloni L., Per La Storia Della Medicina, Sala Bolognese, Forni, 1990.
Modules or teaching units
Hygiene and public health
MEDS-24/B - Hygiene and Public Health - University credits: 2
Lessons: 16 hours
Professor:
Amendola Antonella
Medical history
MEDS-02/C - Medical History - University credits: 1
Lessons: 8 hours
Professor:
Porro Alessandro
Medical statistics
MEDS-24/A - Medical Statistics - University credits: 3
Lessons: 24 hours
Professor:
Edefonti Valeria Carla
Professor(s)
Reception:
For meetings, please write an email.
via Celoria, 22, 20133 Milano
Reception:
previo appuntamento e-mail
via della Commenda 19 - 2* p.