Identification and Pharmacognostical Analyses of Officinal Plants
A.Y. 2025/2026
Learning objectives
Aim of this course is to provide knowledge on the tools for the recognition and identification of medicinal plants and herbal drugs, as well as on the techniques for the extraction and pharmacognostical analysis of herbal drugs for health and therapeutic purposes.
The first part will concern the acquisition of basic notions on the tools (herbarium specimens, traditional dichotomous keys, digital tools, etc.) and on their methods of application, in order to achieve the recognition, identification and classification of medicinal plants. The course also provides knowledge for the recognition and description of selected medicinal species belonging to different botanical families, with particular attention to diagnostic characters, and of a selection of herbal drugs or parts of medicinal plants.
Numerous practical classroom exercises are planned, as well as visits to the Città Studi Botanical Garden (Milan) and to the Ghirardi Botanical Garden (Toscolano Maderno, BS).
Moreover, students will have knowledge on methodologies and techniques for collection, preparation, extraction, storage and quality control of herbal drugs and their derivatives. The course gives the bases to understand the characteristics and pharmacological activities of secondary metabolites contained in medicinal plants.
The first part will concern the acquisition of basic notions on the tools (herbarium specimens, traditional dichotomous keys, digital tools, etc.) and on their methods of application, in order to achieve the recognition, identification and classification of medicinal plants. The course also provides knowledge for the recognition and description of selected medicinal species belonging to different botanical families, with particular attention to diagnostic characters, and of a selection of herbal drugs or parts of medicinal plants.
Numerous practical classroom exercises are planned, as well as visits to the Città Studi Botanical Garden (Milan) and to the Ghirardi Botanical Garden (Toscolano Maderno, BS).
Moreover, students will have knowledge on methodologies and techniques for collection, preparation, extraction, storage and quality control of herbal drugs and their derivatives. The course gives the bases to understand the characteristics and pharmacological activities of secondary metabolites contained in medicinal plants.
Expected learning outcomes
At the end of the course, students will have acquired knowledge on the tools for recognizing and identifying medicinal plants and herbal drugs, along with the extraction techniques of herbal drugs; students will be able to describe the tools for identifying medicinal plants/herbal drugs and the processes of storage and quality control of herbal drugs and to identify the main classes of secondary metabolites and their biological effects.
Lesson period: year
Assessment methods: Esame
Assessment result: voto verbalizzato in trentesimi
Single course
This course can be attended as a single course.
Course syllabus and organization
Single session
Responsible
Lesson period
year
Course syllabus
The course is annual and divided in two parts:
Part I (I semester): Recognition of medicinal plants
· The name of the course: definition of medicinal/officinal plant and recognition.
· Definitions of systematics, taxonomy and chemotaxonomy.
· Città Studi Botanical Garden - Part I: direct observation of unknown plant species chosen in relation to the flowering period and their description through drawing. From scientific description to recognition.
· Elaboration of a sheet for the description of target families and species with reference to diagnostic characteristics.
· Recognition using a traditional dichotomous key and digital tools.
· Herbarium specimens: creation and utility.
· Città Studi Botanical Garden - Part II: recognition through different and complementary levels of study: macro-morphological and micro-morphological description, with particular attention to the secretory structures responsible for the productivity of secondary metabolites, characterization of phytochemical profiles.
· Recognition of drugs or parts of medicinal plants, from macro- to microscopic, in two phases. (i) exposure of drugs/plant parts without labels and invitation to recognition (ii) description of drugs.
Part II (Second Semester): Pharmacognostic Analysis of Medicinal Plants
This part of the course provides an in-depth overview of pharmacognostic methodologies applied to medicinal plants. Topics include:
· Pharmacognosy: introduction, definition, and historical background of Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy. Key concepts such as medicinal plants, organized and unorganized drugs, and the role of Pharmacopoeias.
· Phytocomplex: chemical and pharmacological characteristics, with focus on interactions among components.
· Factors affecting the active constituent content in medicinal plants: endogenous and ontogenetic factors, exogenous influences, and artificial or technical factors.
· Processing of crude drugs: methods of extraction and purification applied to pharmacognostic analysis, with emphasis on the characteristics of each system.
· Drug preservation techniques: freeze-drying, drying, stabilization, and contamination phenomena.
· Quality control of crude drugs: botanical, microscopic, and chemical analyses, and standardization according to Pharmacopoeial standards. Monograph-based examples of quality assessment.
· Adulteration, sophistication, falsification, and counterfeiting: definitions, examples, and related purity assays, including the determination of characteristic chemical constituents.
· Secondary metabolism and chemical constituents of medicinal plant drugs: overview of the role of secondary metabolites in plant physiology, major biosynthetic pathways, and pharmacologically relevant compounds.
· Basic knowledge of the main classes of active principles of plant origin: terpenes, phenolic compounds, alkaloids, sulfur-containing compounds, and plant-derived hydrocolloids.
· Galenic and herbal formulations.
· Introduction to biotechnological applications in medicinal plants: selection, hybridization, genetic mutation, in vitro culture of plant cells, and genetic manipulation.
· Overview of non-conventional medicine.
Guest seminars will be held by experts in the field of medicinal plants.
Part I (I semester): Recognition of medicinal plants
· The name of the course: definition of medicinal/officinal plant and recognition.
· Definitions of systematics, taxonomy and chemotaxonomy.
· Città Studi Botanical Garden - Part I: direct observation of unknown plant species chosen in relation to the flowering period and their description through drawing. From scientific description to recognition.
· Elaboration of a sheet for the description of target families and species with reference to diagnostic characteristics.
· Recognition using a traditional dichotomous key and digital tools.
· Herbarium specimens: creation and utility.
· Città Studi Botanical Garden - Part II: recognition through different and complementary levels of study: macro-morphological and micro-morphological description, with particular attention to the secretory structures responsible for the productivity of secondary metabolites, characterization of phytochemical profiles.
· Recognition of drugs or parts of medicinal plants, from macro- to microscopic, in two phases. (i) exposure of drugs/plant parts without labels and invitation to recognition (ii) description of drugs.
Part II (Second Semester): Pharmacognostic Analysis of Medicinal Plants
This part of the course provides an in-depth overview of pharmacognostic methodologies applied to medicinal plants. Topics include:
· Pharmacognosy: introduction, definition, and historical background of Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy. Key concepts such as medicinal plants, organized and unorganized drugs, and the role of Pharmacopoeias.
· Phytocomplex: chemical and pharmacological characteristics, with focus on interactions among components.
· Factors affecting the active constituent content in medicinal plants: endogenous and ontogenetic factors, exogenous influences, and artificial or technical factors.
· Processing of crude drugs: methods of extraction and purification applied to pharmacognostic analysis, with emphasis on the characteristics of each system.
· Drug preservation techniques: freeze-drying, drying, stabilization, and contamination phenomena.
· Quality control of crude drugs: botanical, microscopic, and chemical analyses, and standardization according to Pharmacopoeial standards. Monograph-based examples of quality assessment.
· Adulteration, sophistication, falsification, and counterfeiting: definitions, examples, and related purity assays, including the determination of characteristic chemical constituents.
· Secondary metabolism and chemical constituents of medicinal plant drugs: overview of the role of secondary metabolites in plant physiology, major biosynthetic pathways, and pharmacologically relevant compounds.
· Basic knowledge of the main classes of active principles of plant origin: terpenes, phenolic compounds, alkaloids, sulfur-containing compounds, and plant-derived hydrocolloids.
· Galenic and herbal formulations.
· Introduction to biotechnological applications in medicinal plants: selection, hybridization, genetic mutation, in vitro culture of plant cells, and genetic manipulation.
· Overview of non-conventional medicine.
Guest seminars will be held by experts in the field of medicinal plants.
Prerequisites for admission
A solid understanding of the fundamental concepts of Plant Biology and Pharmaceutical Botany, as covered in the corresponding first-year course, is essential for the effective comprehension of the subjects addressed in this module. In particular, students are expected to possess prior knowledge of botanical sciences, with emphasis on tissue structure and the identification and botanical description of plant species. Additionally, a background in the chemistry of natural organic compounds is recommended, including familiarity with chemical nomenclature, the structural recognition of diverse compound classes, and the biosynthetic pathways involved in the formation of secondary metabolites.
Teaching methods
The course includes in-person lectures, online sessions, and practical exercises both in the classroom and in the field, aimed at the macroscopic and microscopic identification of plant specimens using dichotomous keys, digital tools, and herbarium samples.
Outdoor lessons will be held at the Città Studi Botanical Garden (Milan), dedicated to live observation, botanical drawing, and sketching techniques. A hands-on learning methodology is adopted ("learning by doing"): students take an active role in the lesson by researching, observing, using their five senses, drawing, identifying, proposing, and even designing.
Attendance is strongly recommended, as the practical activities significantly contribute to a better understanding of the topics covered.
As outlined in the official study plan, part of the course will be delivered using innovative teaching approaches.
Outdoor lessons will be held at the Città Studi Botanical Garden (Milan), dedicated to live observation, botanical drawing, and sketching techniques. A hands-on learning methodology is adopted ("learning by doing"): students take an active role in the lesson by researching, observing, using their five senses, drawing, identifying, proposing, and even designing.
Attendance is strongly recommended, as the practical activities significantly contribute to a better understanding of the topics covered.
As outlined in the official study plan, part of the course will be delivered using innovative teaching approaches.
Teaching Resources
All lecture materials, including slides and additional resources used during in-person or online classes, are available for download on the MyAriel platform :
https://myariel.unimi.it/course/view.php?id=8272
Part I: Recognition of medicinal plants
There is no book adopted because the teaching is mainly based on direct observation of plants. Study support material is developed together during the teaching or provided by the teacher. Students are advised to use the text of Botanica Farmaceutica (Maugini, Maleci Bini, Mariotti Lippi, 2014 - Piccin Editore, Padova).
Part II (Second Semester): Pharmacognostic Analysis of Medicinal Plants
For further study, in addition to the materials provided by the instructor, the following textbooks are suggested:
- FARMACOGNOSIA E FITOTERAPIA: BASI FARMACOLOGICHE E ASPETTI APPLICATIVI. Mazzanti, Dell'Agli, Izzo. Casa editrice Piccin 2020
- MANUALE DELL'ERBORISTA: Biosintesi, estrazione e identificazione delle sostanze di origine vegetale. I. Morelli, G. Flamini, L. Pistelli. Casa editrice: tecniche nuove, 2005
- BOTANICA FARMACEUTICA E FARMACOGNOSIA. Piante officinali, droghe e prodotti erboristici. Gianni Sacchetti. UTET Università 2023
- FARMACOGNOSIA: Botanica, chimica e farmacologia delle piante medicinali
F. Capasso, R. De Pasquale, G. Grandolini. Casa editrice: Springer, 2011, Milano.
- MANUALE DELLE PREPARAZIONI ERBORISTICHE: Fitoterapici, fitocosmetici, prodotti erboristici, integratori alimentari a base di piante. Casa editrice: tecniche nuove 2009
https://myariel.unimi.it/course/view.php?id=8272
Part I: Recognition of medicinal plants
There is no book adopted because the teaching is mainly based on direct observation of plants. Study support material is developed together during the teaching or provided by the teacher. Students are advised to use the text of Botanica Farmaceutica (Maugini, Maleci Bini, Mariotti Lippi, 2014 - Piccin Editore, Padova).
Part II (Second Semester): Pharmacognostic Analysis of Medicinal Plants
For further study, in addition to the materials provided by the instructor, the following textbooks are suggested:
- FARMACOGNOSIA E FITOTERAPIA: BASI FARMACOLOGICHE E ASPETTI APPLICATIVI. Mazzanti, Dell'Agli, Izzo. Casa editrice Piccin 2020
- MANUALE DELL'ERBORISTA: Biosintesi, estrazione e identificazione delle sostanze di origine vegetale. I. Morelli, G. Flamini, L. Pistelli. Casa editrice: tecniche nuove, 2005
- BOTANICA FARMACEUTICA E FARMACOGNOSIA. Piante officinali, droghe e prodotti erboristici. Gianni Sacchetti. UTET Università 2023
- FARMACOGNOSIA: Botanica, chimica e farmacologia delle piante medicinali
F. Capasso, R. De Pasquale, G. Grandolini. Casa editrice: Springer, 2011, Milano.
- MANUALE DELLE PREPARAZIONI ERBORISTICHE: Fitoterapici, fitocosmetici, prodotti erboristici, integratori alimentari a base di piante. Casa editrice: tecniche nuove 2009
Assessment methods and Criteria
The examination consists of a written test covering the topics addressed during the course. The grade is expressed on a scale of thirty; a minimum score of 18/30 is required to pass.
During the course, interim assessments (in itinere tests) are planned covering the partial program of the teaching, or alternatively students may take the examination test covering the overall program, as detailed below.
In itinere tests
They are scheduled at the end of each of the two parts of the course: in January, the test related to the program of Recognition of medicinal plants, and in June, the test related to the program of Pharmacognostic analysis of medicinal plants.
Each assessment consists of a written test consisting of 15 questions: 5 open-ended and 10 multiple-choice questions. The time available for each test is 1 hour and 30 minutes. Passing the first in itinere test on the Recognition of medicinal plants guarantees access to the second in itinere test for the part Pharmacognostic analysis of medicinal plants. A minimum score of 18/30 is required to pass each test. Upon passing the second in-progress test, the overall exam result is recorded, given by the weighted average of the two in itinere tests.
Examination test
There are 7 exam sessions scheduled, covering the overall program of the course, distributed from June 2026 to September 2027.
This exam is a written test consisting of 15 questions: 2 open-ended + 4 multiple-choice questions related to the part of Recognition of medicinal plants and 3 open-ended + 6 multiple-choice questions related to the second part of Pharmacognostic analysis of medicinal plants. The time available is 1 hour and 30 minutes. The test is considered passed with results equal to or higher than 18/30.
During the course, interim assessments (in itinere tests) are planned covering the partial program of the teaching, or alternatively students may take the examination test covering the overall program, as detailed below.
In itinere tests
They are scheduled at the end of each of the two parts of the course: in January, the test related to the program of Recognition of medicinal plants, and in June, the test related to the program of Pharmacognostic analysis of medicinal plants.
Each assessment consists of a written test consisting of 15 questions: 5 open-ended and 10 multiple-choice questions. The time available for each test is 1 hour and 30 minutes. Passing the first in itinere test on the Recognition of medicinal plants guarantees access to the second in itinere test for the part Pharmacognostic analysis of medicinal plants. A minimum score of 18/30 is required to pass each test. Upon passing the second in-progress test, the overall exam result is recorded, given by the weighted average of the two in itinere tests.
Examination test
There are 7 exam sessions scheduled, covering the overall program of the course, distributed from June 2026 to September 2027.
This exam is a written test consisting of 15 questions: 2 open-ended + 4 multiple-choice questions related to the part of Recognition of medicinal plants and 3 open-ended + 6 multiple-choice questions related to the second part of Pharmacognostic analysis of medicinal plants. The time available is 1 hour and 30 minutes. The test is considered passed with results equal to or higher than 18/30.
BIO/14 - PHARMACOLOGY - University credits: 5
BIO/15 - PHARMACEUTICAL BIOLOGY - University credits: 3
BIO/15 - PHARMACEUTICAL BIOLOGY - University credits: 3
Practicals: 16 hours
Lessons: 56 hours
Lessons: 56 hours
Professors:
Caffino Lucia, Giuliani Claudia
Professor(s)
Reception:
9:00-18:00
Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Via Balzaretti 9, Milano