Microbiology and Hygiene
A.Y. 2025/2026
Learning objectives
The course aims to provide students with basic knowledge of microbiology and virology by giving information on the structure and functions of the prokaryotic cell, the metabolic, physiological, and genetic characteristics of microorganisms, and genetic and evolutionary aspects of viruses. Such knowledge is fundamental to understanding the applications of microbiology in pharmaceutical, diagnostic, and food science. In addition, the course aims to provide students with basic knowledge of the main aspects of hygiene, with emphasis on the epidemiology and prophylaxis of infectious diseases.
The teaching includes laboratory exercises, the objective of which is for participants to learn the use of basic instrumentation and the main techniques of the microbiological laboratory.
The teaching includes laboratory exercises, the objective of which is for participants to learn the use of basic instrumentation and the main techniques of the microbiological laboratory.
Expected learning outcomes
By the end of the course, the student will have acquired knowledge of the major structural and functional differences between viruses and bacteria, and consequently will have acquired knowledge of the differences in medical intervention in infections caused by viruses and those caused by bacteria. In addition, upon completion of the laboratory exercises, the student will be able to apply the main basic methods of the microbiological laboratory.
Lesson period: Second semester
Assessment methods: Esame
Assessment result: voto verbalizzato in trentesimi
Single course
This course can be attended as a single course.
Course syllabus and organization
Single session
Responsible
Lesson period
Second semester
Course syllabus
MICROBIOLOGY
Bacteriology
Structure and function of the cell. Comparison among: Archaea, Bacteria, Eucarya.
Observation of microorganisms
Simple and differential staining. Fluorescent staining. Staining with specific probes. Optical and electronic microscopy.
Morphological features of the prokaryotic cell. Cytoplasmic membrane, structure and function. Bacterial transport systems. Cell wall of prokaryotes. Peptidoglycan biosynthesis. Outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. Capsules. Flagella and bacterial motility. Surface structure for adhesion: pili. The nucleoid. Structure and organization of bacterial chromosome. Cytoplasm. Ribosomes. Cell inclusions. Endospores.
Microbial growth and microbial growth control. Principles of microbial nutrition.
Binary fission; clonal growth (clone and colony); exponential growth;
duplication time; growth curve of the bacterial population.
Quantification of the bacterial population: total count and vital count; direct count and indirect count.
Bacterial culture. Culture media. Chemical and physical parameters that influence bacterial growth.
Metabolism.
Bacterial nutrition types.
Primary metabolism. Fermentation and substrate level phosphorylation. Aerobic and anaerobic respiration. Chemiolithotrophy
Bacterial genetics
The nucleoid. Structure and organization of bacterial chromosome. Ribosomes and polysomes. Plasmids. Replication, transcription and translation.
Mutations
Types of mutations. Parental and mutant bacterial strains
Gene transfer: transformation, conjugation, transduction.
Controlling microbial growth
Methods for sterilization. Disinfectants and antiseptics. Antibiotics. Structure and mechanisms of action. Minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC). Overview on resistance mechanisms.
Host-pathogen interaction
The human microbiota. Virulence factors and pathogenesis.
Virology
Introduction to Virology: what is a virus? Structure and classification of viruses. The Baltimore classification. Laboratory methods to study the infectious cycle. Biocontainment laboratories (BSL1 to BSL4).
Viral replication cycles. Attachment and entry. Gene expression and genome replication. Assembly and egress.
Virus-host interaction and mechanisms of pathogenesis.
Antiviral drugs: structure, mechanism of action and resistance.
HYGIENE
Introduction to Hygiene. Definitions of health and diseases. Public health. Demographic studies and epidemiology.
Preventive medicine and promotion of health. Primary, secondary and tertiary prevention. Mass screening campaigns. Oncological screening programs in Italy.
Epidemiology of infectious diseases. The epidemiological transition. The chain of infection. Sources and reservoirs of infection. Modes of transmission. Patterns of infectious disease occurence: endemics, epidemics and pandemics.
General prophylaxis of infectious disease: notification, quarantines, diagnostics, surveillance, epidemiologic survey, disinfection, disinfestation, sterilization.
Specific prophylaxis of infectious disease: active vs. passive immunization. Vaccines and vaccinations. Classical (attenuated, inactivated, subunit vaccines, anatoxins) and recombinant vaccines. Next generation vaccines: viral vectors and mRNA vaccines.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
Sensitivity test
Transformation of E. coli
Isolation and growth of single E. coli colonies
Plasmid extraction from E. coli
Bacterial Protein Expression
Quantification of viral titer
Bacteriology
Structure and function of the cell. Comparison among: Archaea, Bacteria, Eucarya.
Observation of microorganisms
Simple and differential staining. Fluorescent staining. Staining with specific probes. Optical and electronic microscopy.
Morphological features of the prokaryotic cell. Cytoplasmic membrane, structure and function. Bacterial transport systems. Cell wall of prokaryotes. Peptidoglycan biosynthesis. Outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. Capsules. Flagella and bacterial motility. Surface structure for adhesion: pili. The nucleoid. Structure and organization of bacterial chromosome. Cytoplasm. Ribosomes. Cell inclusions. Endospores.
Microbial growth and microbial growth control. Principles of microbial nutrition.
Binary fission; clonal growth (clone and colony); exponential growth;
duplication time; growth curve of the bacterial population.
Quantification of the bacterial population: total count and vital count; direct count and indirect count.
Bacterial culture. Culture media. Chemical and physical parameters that influence bacterial growth.
Metabolism.
Bacterial nutrition types.
Primary metabolism. Fermentation and substrate level phosphorylation. Aerobic and anaerobic respiration. Chemiolithotrophy
Bacterial genetics
The nucleoid. Structure and organization of bacterial chromosome. Ribosomes and polysomes. Plasmids. Replication, transcription and translation.
Mutations
Types of mutations. Parental and mutant bacterial strains
Gene transfer: transformation, conjugation, transduction.
Controlling microbial growth
Methods for sterilization. Disinfectants and antiseptics. Antibiotics. Structure and mechanisms of action. Minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC). Overview on resistance mechanisms.
Host-pathogen interaction
The human microbiota. Virulence factors and pathogenesis.
Virology
Introduction to Virology: what is a virus? Structure and classification of viruses. The Baltimore classification. Laboratory methods to study the infectious cycle. Biocontainment laboratories (BSL1 to BSL4).
Viral replication cycles. Attachment and entry. Gene expression and genome replication. Assembly and egress.
Virus-host interaction and mechanisms of pathogenesis.
Antiviral drugs: structure, mechanism of action and resistance.
HYGIENE
Introduction to Hygiene. Definitions of health and diseases. Public health. Demographic studies and epidemiology.
Preventive medicine and promotion of health. Primary, secondary and tertiary prevention. Mass screening campaigns. Oncological screening programs in Italy.
Epidemiology of infectious diseases. The epidemiological transition. The chain of infection. Sources and reservoirs of infection. Modes of transmission. Patterns of infectious disease occurence: endemics, epidemics and pandemics.
General prophylaxis of infectious disease: notification, quarantines, diagnostics, surveillance, epidemiologic survey, disinfection, disinfestation, sterilization.
Specific prophylaxis of infectious disease: active vs. passive immunization. Vaccines and vaccinations. Classical (attenuated, inactivated, subunit vaccines, anatoxins) and recombinant vaccines. Next generation vaccines: viral vectors and mRNA vaccines.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
Sensitivity test
Transformation of E. coli
Isolation and growth of single E. coli colonies
Plasmid extraction from E. coli
Bacterial Protein Expression
Quantification of viral titer
Prerequisites for admission
For lectures, basic notions of general biology, human anatomy and general chemistry are required. For laboratory activities, knowledge of concentration formulas (molarity, percentage, weight/volume), dilutions and equivalences (transition from mM to microM, from L to mL to microL, from g to mg to microg) is required.
Teaching methods
Lectures and laboratory activities
Teaching Resources
Slides of the course uploaded on Ariel website
-E. Galli, G. Dehò. Biologia dei Microrganismi Casa Editrice Ambrosiana (2018)
-M.T. Madigan, J.M. Martinko, K.S. Bender, D.H. Buckley, D.A. Stahl. Brock. Biologia dei microrganismi. Microbiologia generale, ambientale e industriale. Ed. Pearson (2016)
-N.J. DImmock, A. J. Easton e K. N. Leppard. Introduzione alla Virologia Moderna. Casa Editrice Ambrosiana, 7a edizione (2007)
-A. Amendola et al. Igiene e patologia. Zanichelli, 2a edizione (2020)
-E. Galli, G. Dehò. Biologia dei Microrganismi Casa Editrice Ambrosiana (2018)
-M.T. Madigan, J.M. Martinko, K.S. Bender, D.H. Buckley, D.A. Stahl. Brock. Biologia dei microrganismi. Microbiologia generale, ambientale e industriale. Ed. Pearson (2016)
-N.J. DImmock, A. J. Easton e K. N. Leppard. Introduzione alla Virologia Moderna. Casa Editrice Ambrosiana, 7a edizione (2007)
-A. Amendola et al. Igiene e patologia. Zanichelli, 2a edizione (2020)
Assessment methods and Criteria
At the end of the laboratory activities there will be a verification test which consists of a written test of 15 true/false questions, lasting 30 minutes, concerning the activities performed in the laboratory. Each question is worth one point. Based on the score obtained, it is possible to get up to a maximum of two scores to be added to the exam grade.
The exam consists of a written test lasting one hour and consists of 30 multiple choice questions with 4 answers for each question with only one true answer. The questions concern the whole program, both for the microbiology part and for the hygiene part. Final score is the sum of scores obtained in the different parts of the exam. The evaluation is in thirtieths.
The exam consists of a written test lasting one hour and consists of 30 multiple choice questions with 4 answers for each question with only one true answer. The questions concern the whole program, both for the microbiology part and for the hygiene part. Final score is the sum of scores obtained in the different parts of the exam. The evaluation is in thirtieths.
BIO/19 - MICROBIOLOGY - University credits: 8
Single bench laboratory practical: 32 hours
Lessons: 48 hours
Lessons: 48 hours
Professor(s)