Veterinary General Pathology and Clinical Biochemistry

A.Y. 2025/2026
12
Max ECTS
112
Overall hours
SSD
BIO/12 VET/03
Language
Italian
Learning objectives
To provide knowledge about the pathogenic mechanisms responsible of the pathologic changes detectable in domestic and wild animals. Students will be also educated to select appropriate clinical biochemistry and molecular biology methods and to elaborate, interpret and understand the limitation of the test results.
Expected learning outcomes
Knowledge and understanding: the student will acquire knowledge on the etiopathogenesis of the main pathological and pathophysiological changes in animal tissues and organ systems and on the analytical techniques commonly used in veterinary clinical chemistry, biochemistry and molecular biology.
Ability to apply knowledge and understanding: the student will acquire skills to interpret the most common pathological and pathophysiological changes and the associated laboratory abnormalities, as well as to select the most appropriate biochemical and molecular methods to measure diagnostic markers of disease in biological samples of animal origin. The student will learn how to process an instrumental reading into the concentration of a diagnostic molecular marker, and on how to interpret the diagnostic value of a laboratory result, how to control the source of error of laboratory's tests and the principle of quality insurance.
Autonomy of judgment: the student will develop problem solving abilities and autonomy of judgment by tackling problems of diagnostic clinical pathology and biochemistry during practical exercises in laboratories (biochemistry, microscopy and computer labs). The ability to integrate notions taught in the different modules will also developed by proposing to small group of students clinical cases that they must evaluate and solve autonomously as regards the aspects of pathology, immunopathology and clinical biochemistry.
Communication skills: the student during the class discussion and practical laboratory exercises will learn how to present pathology and clinical biochemistry data with appropriate and updated terminology, consistent with the professionalism required by a veterinarian surgeon. Communication skills will be as well developed during collegial discussions of the diagnostic pathology and biochemistry matters of the clinical cases that the students previously faced by themselves.
Lifelong learning skills: the reasoning skills and the notions and methodologies acquired during the classes should allow the student to continue autonomously the study and the lifelong updating of his knowledge on tissue and organ pathological and pathophysiological alterations, as well as on the method of analysis of clinical biochemistry markers of disease, both during the university career and then as a veterinarian.
Single course

This course cannot be attended as a single course. Please check our list of single courses to find the ones available for enrolment.

Course syllabus and organization

Single session

Responsible
Lesson period
Second semester
Prerequisites for admission
In order to be able to take the General Veterinary Pathology and Clinical Biochemistry examination, attendance at 70% of the courses and tutorials of all three modules and successful completion of the (compulsory propaedeuticity) examinations are required:
- Veterinary bacteriology, virology and immunology
- Systematic and comparative veterinary anatomy 3
- Physiology and endocrinology of domestic animals
- Physiology and ethology of domestic animals

Passing the General Veterinary Pathology and Clinical Biochemistry examination is a prerequisite for the examinations of:
- Veterinary Pathological Anatomy 1
- Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology
- Infectious and parasitic diseases of pets and horses
- Infectious and parasitic diseases of farm animals and herd health management
Assessment methods and Criteria
There are 8 exam session and are held in January, February, April, June, July, September, October and November/December. Two extra exam sessions only for students enrolled in supplementary years take place on request in March and May.
In order to sit the exam, it is essential to register for the exam via the University's SIFA online service (N.B.: registration closes 3 days before the exam date) and the compulsory propaedeutic exams must have been passed.
The examination takes place in a single session for the three modules of the integrated course and consists of a written exam of a maximum duration of 120 minutes. The student who obtains ≥ 18 points in each module passes the written examination. A student who obtains 16 or 17 points in a module is obliged to take an oral examination. A student who scores < 16 points in two or more modules is failed.
The oral examination to make up the failure in a module of the written examination lasts 10-15 minutes and covers specific topics from the syllabus of the module related to the failed section. The ability to correct the errors made in the written test and whether the failure is due to a real criticality in the knowledge and understanding of the syllabus topics of that module will be assessed. If the oral test is not passed, the student must retake the examination of the entire integrated course. Rubrics with the evaluation criteria for the oral examination can be found on the course's Ariel website.
Students who scored ≥ 18 in the three modules of the written examination and wish to increase their score in one or more modules may apply to take an oral examination on a voluntary basis. The optional 10-15 minutes oral examination covers specific topics from the module programme relating to the section with the grade the student wishes to improve. The test includes a critical discussion of the written result and in-depth questions on specific topics of the syllabus. Rubrics with the evaluation criteria for the oral examination can be found on the course's Ariel website.
The mark expressed in thirtieths is calculated as a weighted average over the CFUs of the marks obtained in the sections of the written paper relating to the three modules. The marks for the individual modules are calculated as follows:

MODULE OF GENERAL VETERINARY PATHOLOGY (maximum 32 points)
The written test consists of two sections. (A) Four multiple-choice and/or single-choice open-ended questions on the general aetiology or pathogenesis of cell damage, adaptation mechanisms or intra- and extracellular degeneration, inflammation, and tumours; 2 points will be awarded for each correct answer; 1 point for each partially correct answer; 0 points for each incorrect or missing answer. (B) Four questions with three short open-ended answers on the general aetiology or pathogenesis of cellular damage, adaptation mechanisms or intra- and extracellular degeneration, inflammation, and tumours; 2 marks will be awarded for each correct answer; 1 mark for each partially correct answer; 0 marks for each incorrect or missing answer.

PATHOPHYSIOLOGY AND IMMUNOPATHOLOGY MODULE (maximum 32 points)
The written test consists of two sections. (A) Four questions with multiple-choice and/or unequivocal open answers on blood or plasma protein diseases, endocrine diseases, circulatory disorders, organ function tests or fever, and immunopathology; 2 points will be awarded for each correct answer; 1 point for each partially correct answer; 0 points for each incorrect or no answer. (B) Four questions involving three short open-ended answers on blood or plasma protein diseases, endocrine diseases, circulatory disorders, organ function tests or fever, and immunopathology; 2 marks will be awarded for each correct answer; 1 mark for each partially correct answer; 0 marks for each incorrect or not given answer.

CLINICAL BIOCHEMISTRY MODULE (maximum 32 points)
The written test consists of three sections. (A) Sixteen multiple-choice and/or single-choice open-answer questions in which the student must demonstrate knowledge and ability to understand the theoretical principles and practical aspects of the main biochemistry and molecular biology analysis methods used in veterinary diagnostic laboratories: 0.75 points for each correct answer; 0.4 points for each partially correct answer; 0.0 points for each incorrect answer. (B) Two articulated open-ended questions in which the student must demonstrate knowledge of the theoretical principles and practical aspects of the main methods of biochemistry and molecular biology analysis used in veterinary diagnostic laboratories. The ability to convert an instrumental result into a biochemical diagnostic parameter will also be assessed: 10 marks maximum for the first question and 4 marks maximum for the second question. (C) Five calculation exercises on transformations between concentration units, preparation of solutions, calculation of enzyme activity, simple questions on the transformation of the instrumental reading of an analysis into the concentration of the analyte: 1.2 points for each correct answer, 0.6 points for each partially correct answer, 0.0 points for each incorrect answer.
General Veterinary pathology
Course syllabus
- Introduction (Introduction to the course - concept of homeostasis and disease). 1 hour.
- General aetiology (Physical causes of disease - radiation and burns; Chemical causes of disease; Living agents as a cause of disease; Genetic-inherited causes). 4 hours.
- Cell and tissue death (Necrosis, Apoptosis). 2 hours.
- Adaptive mechanisms (Hypertrophy, Hypotrophy, Metaplasia). 2 hours.
- Cellular degeneration (Turbid swelling, Hydropic degeneration, Vacuolar degeneration, Mucosal degeneration, Fatty degeneration or steatosis, Cholesterinosis - atheromas). 4 hours.
- Extracellular degeneration (Jalin degeneration, Fibrinoid degeneration or necrosis, Mucous connective degeneration, Amyloid degeneration or amyloidosis). 3 hours.
- The acute inflammatory process or angioflogosis (Phases of angioflogosis, Vasomotor changes during angioflogosis, Cell activation, diapedesis and phagocytosis, Chemical mediators of the inflammatory process, Classification of exudates, The acute phase reaction). 6 hours.
- The chronic inflammatory process or histophlogosis (interstitial histophlogosis, granulomatous histophlogosis). 2 hours.
- Wound repair (Mechanisms of healing by first and second intention). 2 hours.
- Tumours (Definitions and nomenclature, Morphological, biochemical and metabolic neoplastic atypicalities, Mechanisms of oncogenesis, Molecular oncogenesis, The stages of neoplastic development, Metastatisation, Cachexia and paraneoplastic syndromes, Immunity and tumours). 6 hours.
Teaching methods
Lectures (24 hours) by means of slides with diagrams, text and explanatory videos. During the lectures there are interactive discussions of points of interest and at the end of each group of topics a self-assessment test using computer tool
Teaching Resources
- Notes or 'on-line' version on the Ariel website
- McGAVIN and ZACHARY - General Veterinary Pathology - Elsevier Masson 2008
- PONTIERI - General Pathology -1 and 2 (2 for pathophysiology) - Piccin. Latest edition
- ROBBINS - Pathologic basis of the disease - 6th (2000)/7th (2004) ed. Saunders

The following day one competences (DOCs) provided by EAEVE will be delivered in this module: 5, 10, 14, 25.
Pathophysiology and immunopathology
Course syllabus
LESSONS
- Blood pathophysiology (Modifications of blood volume, Anaemia, Polycythaemia, Leukocytopenia, Thrombocytopenia, Alterations of plasma proteins). 5 hours.
- Pathophysiology of the endocrine system (Hypo- and hyperfunctional syndromes of the pituitary gland, thyroid, adrenal glans, General Adaptation Syndrome. (stress), endocrine pancreas: diabetes mellitus). 5 hours.
- Pathophysiology of metabolism (Bovine ketosis and toxaemia gravidarum of small ruminants; Neonatal hypoglycaemia of the piglet; Puerperal collapse). 4 hours.
- Circulatory disorders (Hyperaemia, Oedema, Ischaemia, Infarction, Thrombosis, Embolism, Shock) 2 hours
- Pathophysiology of thermoregulation (non-febrile hyperthermia, fever). 1 hour.
- Pathological pigmentations: jaundice. 1 hour.
- Functionality tests (Interpretative principles, Liver function tests). 1 hour.
- Immunopathology (Hypersensitivity reactions (Type I, II, III, IV), Autoimmune diseases, Immunodeficiencies. 5 hours.

EXERCISES
- Exercise 1: Methods, analytical principles and pre-analytical errors (single group in the classroom): students are provided in advance, via the Ariel website, with laboratory data produced with the different methods or falsified by pre-analytical errors and in the classroom, after a short presentation on the methods they will use in the laboratory (exercise 2), the cases presented as well as the advantages and disadvantages of the different methods are discussed through questions on the wooclap platform. 2 hours
- Exercise 2: Handling and analysis of blood samples (groups of up to 20 students in the laboratory): Cell counts, Individual blood smear execution, Automated biochemical determinations. 2 hours.
- Exercise 3: Blood smear analysis and cell recognition (single group in the classroom): Students are provided with a file of images of the main normal and pathological cells found in blood on Ariel. Questions are presented in the classroom for each image on the wooclap platform, and the answers are commented on collectively. 2 hours
- Exercise 4: Reading of non-pathological blood smears under the microscope (microscope room with single microscope, groups of max. 30 students): method of reading normal smears of different animal species, Performing the leukocyte formula: 4 hours
- Exercise 5: Reading pathological blood smears under the microscope (microscope room with single microscope, groups of max. 30 students): Recognition of basic erythrogram and leucogram alterations. 8 hours.
- Exercise 6: Principles of interpretation (single group in the classroom), clinical cases derived from the diagnostic routine of the university veterinary hospital are presented in the classroom and through questions on the wooclap platform, the participants are asked to identify the main pathophysiological changes described in the course and displayed in the previous exercises: 2 hours.
Teaching methods
Lectures (24 hours) by means of slides with diagrams, text and explanatory videos. During the lectures there will be interactive discussions of points of interest and at the end of each group of topics a self-assessment test using IT tools. Practical exercises (16 hours) will be carried out as indicated in the syllabus at the biological or microscopy laboratories of the Lodi teaching centre.
Teaching Resources
- Lecture notes and teaching materials uploaded by the lecturer on the university's ARIEL portal dedicated to the course.
- PONTIERI - General Pathology -1 and 2 (2 for pathophysiology) - Piccin. Latest edition
- TIZARD - Veterinary Immunolgy - An Introduction, 6th ed. Saunders
For specific interests (blood diseases and endocrinology):
- WEISS and WARDROP- Schalm's Veterinary Hematology - 6th ed. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins
- KANEKO - Clinical Biochemistry of domestic animals - 6th ed.
- STOCKHAM & SCOTT - Fundamentals of Veterinary Clinical Pathology - 2nd ed.
- PALTRINIERI GIORDANO, BERTAZZOLO - Clinical Pathology of Dogs and Cats. Practical approach to laboratory diagnostics.

The following EAEVE day one competences (DOCs) will be delivered in this module: 4,5,7,10,11,14,16,22,23,24,25,29
Clinical biochemistry
Course syllabus
LECTURES
- Units of measurement in clinical biochemistry. SI and conventional units in the expression of concentrations (weight/volume, molarity, ppm and ppb, percentage). (2 hours).
- Radiant energy. Absorbance, transmittance, spectrophotometry, fluorometry, luminometry, refractometry, reflectance spectroscopy, atomic absorption. (1 hour).
- From instrumental reading to analyte concentration. (2 hours).
- Clinical chemistry methods. (1 hour).
- Enzymatic methods for the assay of metabolites of clinical biochemical interest in biological fluids. (1 hour).
- Enzymatic methods for the assay of enzymes of clinical biochemical interest in biological fluids. (2 hours).
- Immunochemical methods for antibody and antigen assays: direct tests and tests with competitive and non-competitive labelled reagents (e.g. ELISA) (2 hours)
- Electrophoretic methods. General principles, net charge electrophoresis, SDS-electrophoresis. Interpretation of electropherogram. (2 hours).
- Electrochemical methods. Measurements in potentiometry with ion-selective electrodes and measurements in amperometry. (1 hour).
- Atomic photometry. Atomic absorption and emission. (1 hour).
- Molecular biology techniques. PCR, analysis of PCR products, sequencing. (2 hours).
- Factors influencing laboratory's test results. Pre-analytical variability. Analytical variability: precision, accuracy, sensitivity, limit of determinability, specificity, cross-reactivity, species-specificity. Objectives for analytical errors. (4 hours).
- Interpretation of laboratory analysis for diagnostic purposes. Biological variability. Reference values and ranges. Pathognomonic and non-pathognomonic testing. Concepts of diagnostic sensitivity and specificity, prevalence, calculation of negative predictive values and positive predictive values of diagnostic tests. (3 hours).

PRACTICAL TRAINING
- Transformation exercises between quantities and units used in clinical biochemistry and calculations for the preparation of solutions at specific concentrations. The lecturer proposes calculation exercises that students solve individually or in small groups, also by asking the lecturer for support. Each exercise is followed by collegial correction of the exercise itself. (12 hours, classroom).
- Mathematical processing, graphical representation and critical analysis of the results of laboratory analysis of biomolecules in biological samples. Construction and compilation of Excel spreadsheets with numerical instrumental data obtained from chemistry-clinical assays, sandwich and competitive ELISAs to trace the concentration of the measured analyte, electrophoresis. The students work individually at workstations with PCs on which they find the necessary materials to carry out the exercise. Students are free to ask the lecturer for support and/or discuss with their peers. At the end of the exercise, the student sends their paper to the lecturer by e-mail. (2 hours, computer rooms).
- Use of NCBI software and databases for species identification of nucleotide sequences obtained by PCR/sequencing and design of species-specific primers. Students work individually at a workstation with a PC at which they find the necessary materials to carry out the exercise. Students are free to ask the lecturer for support and/or discuss with their peers. At the end of the exercise, the student sends their paper to the lecturer by e-mail. (2 hours, computer room).
Teaching methods
- Lectures (24 hours). Classroom lectures with slide projections in which principles and applications of the main biochemical and clinical molecular biology methodologies used in the veterinary biochemical diagnostic laboratory are discussed.
- Practical training (16 hours). These are held in the classroom for all students and in the computer room with students divided into groups. They are aimed at carrying out laboratory mathematics exercises and calculations for the processing of numerical instrumental results into biochemical diagnostic parameter concentrations.
Teaching Resources
- Lecture notes and material distributed and published by the lecturer on the university's ARIEL website dedicated to the course.
- Textbooks:
Clinical Biochemistry, 2nd edition (2000), Luigi Spandrio, Sorbonne Editions. Part One (General Clinical Biochemistry)
- For more information:
Biochemical Methodology - Keith Wilson and John Walker, 5th edition - Italian Eds Pilone and Pollegioni, Raffaello Cortina Editore (2006).
Clinical biochemistry of domestic animals, 6th edition (2008), Kaneko JJ, Academic press.
Modules or teaching units
Clinical biochemistry
BIO/12 - CLINICAL BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY - University credits: 4
Practicals: 16 hours
Lessons: 24 hours
Professor: Borromeo Vitaliano
Shifts:
Professor: Borromeo Vitaliano
1 - 2 turni da 4 ore per gruppi di studenti
Professor: Borromeo Vitaliano
turno unico per tutti gli studenti
Professor: Borromeo Vitaliano

General Veterinary pathology
VET/03 - VETERINARY PATHOLOGY - University credits: 4
Lessons: 32 hours

Pathophysiology and immunopathology
VET/03 - VETERINARY PATHOLOGY - University credits: 4
Practicals: 16 hours
Lessons: 24 hours
Shifts:
1 - 4 turni da 2 ore per gruppi di studenti
Professor: Paltrinieri Saverio
2 - 3 turni da 8 ore per gruppi di studenti
Professor: Paltrinieri Saverio
Turno unico per tutti gli studenti
Professor: Paltrinieri Saverio

Professor(s)
Reception:
Every day, by appointment
Lodi or online on Teams